Fact, Opinion, Judgment, Inference, and Argument

Reasons and evidence are the facts that help support your claim and give your argument the “legs” it needs to be supported; however, opinions are necessary in an argument, too. After all, your claim is essentially an opinion. So, what’s the difference between fact and opinion?

Fact and Opinion

Facts are things that we know to be true based on evidence from observation. That bees make honey is a fact; it can be observed in a variety of ways. Opinions, on the other hand, are beliefs or views that can’t be proven—they are not based on any evidence. If I tell somebody that I love Honey Nut Cheerios because they taste delicious, that’s an opinion. If I say that in 2011, Honey Nut Cheerios was the best-selling cereal in the United States, that’s a fact (according to the New York Times, by way of Wikipedia).

Watch out for the difference between facts (which can’t really be refuted) and judgments, which are really arguments in disguise. For instance, if I call Honey Nut Cheerios a “healthy” cereal, someone could disagree with my judgment of what constitutes “healthy.” In other words, I’m actually making an argument. The argument may be based on facts (such as the amount of fiber per serving), or other arguments and judgments (such as the definition of a “heart-healthy” food according to the American Heart Association). Sometimes we look at a situation and infer, or make a reasoned guess about, what could be happening. An inference is a logical conclusion based on the facts: if I eat a box of cereal a day, you might infer that I like cereal. That’s not a fact (there could be other reasons that I eat that much cereal), nor is it a judgment (“that’s too much cereal”); it’s an inference.

Facts are observable, verifiable information. Facts are what you see, no opinions or values added. They are learned through our senses: sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch. They exist outside the observer, meaning they are reality, not the observer’s impression of that reality.

• In the United States, 84% of wildfires are started by humans. (Wikipedia)

• Esperanza Spalding is a jazz bassist, singer, songwriter, and composer. She has won four Grammy Awards.

• Florida has the highest concentration of Cuban Americans in the U.S. (1.53 million in 2017).

Inferences are based on analysis. They are statements of the unknown based on the known. They are derived from reason. In other words, they are figured out based on our past experience. They exist within the observer and therefore can be different based on the observer’s experience. Here are some examples of inferences based on facts:

• Fire can actually contribute to the health of a forest. (This can be inferred from the historical effects of fire on forests and trees).

• Esperanza Spalding is a very talented musician. (This can be inferred from her accolades and awards).

• Florida’s politics are strongly influenced by Cuban-American voters. (This can be inferred from the number of Cuban Americans in Florida).

Judgments are subjective observations. They are based on the facts of a situation, but are also derived from our values and reveal our feelings and attitudes toward something. A judgment is a statement we would expect others to agree with if they had the same information and perspective that we do. (To that extent, it’s like an argument). Here are some examples of judgments made from facts:

• People shouldn’t build in places with wildfire risk.

• Chamber Music Society is Esperanza Spalding’s greatest album.

• Cuban culture is the heart and soul of Miami.

A judgment is essentially a reasoned opinion. Opinion is a broad category that includes both reasoned arguments and feelings that aren’t based on facts or knowledge (such as preferences).

You can imagine a continuum going from most objective (verifiable with the senses) to most subjective (based on one person’s thoughts and experiences):

fact – inference – judgment – opinion

Facts, inferences, judgments, and opinions all have a place in academic argument. However, it’s important not to confuse them, since an argument will only be convincing—especially to those most likely to disagree with it—if it rests on facts, reasoned inferences, and well-argued judgments.

Adapted from: "Fact, Opinion, Judgment, Inference, and Argument" by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).